Abstract
Coffee is the second most consumed beverage in the world, after water, and is transitioning from a commercial product to a high quality one. The present study investigated the impact of maceration and the addition of carbon sources on the cupsensory attributes of coffee, using fruits from two altitudes: 650 and 1,200 masl. A split-plot design was applied, where the treatments were the carbonic maceration process and the sub-treatments were the addition of carbon sources. The results showed that a 12 h carbonic maceration process improved (p < 0.05) the sensory attributes of the beverage, especially in coffee grown and processed at low altitudes (650 masl), while this maceration time had no significant effect on the samples grown and processed at a higher altitude (1,200 masl). The addition of carbon sources, such as pulp and sucrose, to freshly pulped beans significantly improved attributes such as flavor, body and total score in samples grown and processed at higher altitudes (1,200 masl). This demonstrates the potential for improving the sensory attributes of coffee through modifications to the bean fermentation process.
References
Asociación de Normalización y Certificación A.C. [ANCE]. (2017, Abril 23). NMX-F-599-SCFI-2016 Café verde - Protocolo de evaluación sensorial. https://platiica.economia.gob.mx/normalizacion/nmx-f-599-scfi-2016/
Azmi, N., Abubakar, Y., Widayat, H. P., Nilda, C., Yunika, M., Andini, S., Rahmi, F., & Muzaifa, M. (2024). What is carbonic maceration coffee? A mini review on production and quality. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 1356(1), Article 012007. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/1356/1/012007
Braga, A. V. U., Miranda, M. A., Aoyama, H., & Schmidt, F. L. (2023). Study on coffee quality improvement by self-induced anaerobic fermentation: Microbial diversity and enzymatic activity. Food Research International, 165, 112528. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.FOODRES.2023.112528
Cao, X., Wu, H., Viejo, C. G., Dunshea, F. R., & Suleria, H. A. R. (2023). Effects of postharvest processing on aroma formation in roasted coffee – a review. International Journal of Food Science and Technology, 58(3), 1007–1027. https://doi.org/10.1111/IJFS.16261
Cassamo, C. T., Mangueze, A. V. J., Leitão, A. E., Pais, I. P., Moreira, R., Campa, C., Chiulele, R., Reis, F. O., Marques, I., Scotti-Campos, P., Lidon, F. C., Partelli, F. L., Ribeiro-Barros, A. I., & Ramalho, J. C. (2022). Shade and altitude implications on the physical and chemical attributes of green coffee beans from Gorongosa Mountain, Mozambique. Agronomy, 12(10), 2540. https://doi.org/10.3390/AGRONOMY12102540
Córdoba, N. M., & Guerrero, J. E. (2016). Caracterización de los procesos tradicionales de fermentación de café en el Departamento de Nariño. Biotecnología en el Sector Agropecuario y Agroindustrial, 14(2), 75. https://doi.org/10.18684/BSAA(14)75-83
Costa, A. S. G., Peixoto, J. A. B., Machado, S., Espírito Santo, L., Soares, T. F., Andrade, N., Azevedo, R., Almeida, A., Costa, H. S., Oliveira, M. B. P. P., Martel, F., Simal-Gandara, J., & Alves, R. C. (2025). Coffee pulp from Azores: A novel phytochemical-rich food with potential anti-diabetic properties. Foods, 14(2), 306. https://doi.org/10.3390/FOODS14020306
da Silva, M. C. S., da Luz, J. M. R., Veloso, T. G. R., Gomes, W. dos S., Oliveira, E. C. da S., Anastácio, L. M., Cunha, A., Moreli, A. P., Guarçoni, R. C., Kasuya, M. C. M., & Pereira, L. L. (2022). Processing techniques and microbial fermentation on microbial profile and chemical and sensory quality of the coffee beverage. European Food Research and Technology, 248(6), 1499–1512. https://doi.org/10.1007/S00217-022-03980-6/FIGURES/7
da Silva, M. C. S., Veloso, T. G. R., Junior, D. B., Bullergahn, V. B., da Luz, J. M. R., Menezes, K. M. S., Guarçoni, R. C., Kasuya, M. C. M., & Pereira, L. L. (2023). Bacterial community and sensory quality from coffee are affected along fermentation under carbonic maceration. Food Chemistry Advances, 3, 100554. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.focha.2023.100554
de Melo, G. V., da Silva, A., de Carvalho, D. P., Muynarsk, E. S., Soccol, V. T., & Soccol, C. R. (2020). Lactic acid bacteria: what coffee industry should know? Current Opinion in Food Science, 31, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.COFS.2019.07.004
de Melo, G. V., Neto, E., Soccol, V. T., Medeiros, A. B. P., Woiciechowski, A. L., & Soccol, C. R. (2015). Conducting starter culture-controlled fermentations of coffee beans during on-farm wet processing: Growth, metabolic analyses and sensorial effects. Food Research International, 75, 348–356. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.FOODRES.2015.06.027
dos Santos, W., Partelli, F. L., da Silva, E. C., Guimarães, C. V., Simmer, M. M. B., Filete, C. A., Guarçoni, R. C., da Luz, J. M. R., Moreli, A. P., & Pereira, L. L. (2025). Fermentation time and temperature induce changes in the volatile and sensory profile of Coffea canephora var. Conilon subjected to carbonic maceration. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis, 143. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfca.2025.107636
Elhalis, H., Cox, J., & Zhao, J. (2023). Coffee fermentation: Expedition from traditional to controlled process and perspectives for industrialization. Applied Food Research, 3(1), 100253. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.AFRES.2022.100253
Gabriel-Hernández, L., & Barradas, V. L. (2024). Panorama of coffee cultivation in the central zone of Veracruz State, Mexico: Identification of main stressors and challenges to face. Sustainability, 16(2), 802. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16020802
Gallego, C. P., & Rodríguez, N. (2021). Identificación de algunas variables fisicoquímicas y microbiológicas asociadas con el defecto reposo en el café. Revista Cenicafé, 72(1), e72105. https://doi.org/10.38141/10778/72105
Gómez, C., & Garbinato, B. (2025). Blockchain technology to improve traceability in the coffee supply chain: A systematic literature review. International Journal of Information Management Data Insights, 5(2), 100359. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jjimei.2025.100359
He, Z., Cao, L., Zhao, L., Zhou, Y., Gong, J., Zhu, C., & Tan, C. (2025). Effects of the mixed fermentation of apples and yeast on the sensory evaluation, physicochemical composition and flavor of coffee beans. Food Bioscience, 68, 106337. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.FBIO.2025.106337
Hernández-Alcántara, G., Alarcón-Gutiérrez, E., Ronzón-Soto, S., & García-Pérez, J. A. (2023). Physical and sensorial quality of yellow Caturra coffee after a carbonic maceration process. Coffee Science, 18:e182134. https://doi.org/10.25186/.v18i.2134
Herrera, O. B., & Zamora, C. B. (2025). Territorios cafetaleros en México: Claves para una tipología de productores. Revista de El Colegio de San Luis, 15(26), 1–27. https://doi.org/10.21696/rcsl152620251628
Hu, R., Xu, F., Chen, X., Kuang, Q., Xiao, X., & Dong, W. (2024). The growing altitude influences the flavor precursors, sensory characteristics and cupping quality of the Pu’er coffee bean. Foods, 13(23), 3842. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods13233842
Meeprom, S., & Kokkhangplu, A. (2025). Customer experience and satisfaction in coffee consumption: an experiential marketing perspective. Cogent Business & Management, 12(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/23311975.2025.2450296
Mendoza, B. F., Pincay, J. D., & Bravo, R. C. (2023). Influencia de la cosecha de café maduro y verde sobre la calidad física y organoléptica del café (Coffea arábica L.). Agrosilvicultura y Medioambiente, 1(1), 14–25. https://doi.org/10.47230/AGROSILVICULTURA.MEDIOAMBIENTE.V1.N1.2023.14-25
Misgana, Z., Garedew, W., Alemayehu, Y., Bekeko, Z., & Nebiyu, A. (2024). The influence of shade tree species and coffee varieties on selected soil physicochemical properties in coffee-based farming system of southwestern Ethiopia. Trees, Forests and People, 17, 100650. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.TFP.2024.100650
Morales Ramos, V., Escamilla Prado, E., Muñoz Rodríguez, M., Velázquez Morales, J. A., & Spinoso Castillo, J. L. (2021). Perfiles de Calidad del Café de México. Ed. Biblioteca Básica de Agricultura. México.
Muñoz Rodríguez, M., Gómez Pérez, D., Santoyo Cortés, V. H., & Rosales Lechuga, R. (2019). Los Negocios del Café ¿Cómo innovar en el contexto de la paradoja del café, en pro de una red de valor más inclusiva y accesible? Ed. Universidad Autónoma Chapingo, CIESTAAM. https://repositorio.chapingo.edu.mx/handle/20.500.12098/272
Mustafa, A., Salengke, S., Laga, A., Bastian, F., Hasizah, A., & Reta, R. (2024). Ohmic-based carbonic maceration of arabica coffee cherries: a review. BIO Web Conf., 96. https://doi.org/10.1051/bioconf/20249601010
Osorio, V. (2021). La calidad del Café. In Guía más agronomia, más productividad, más calidad (3ra. Ed., pp. 219–234). Revista Cenicafé. https://doi.org/10.38141/10791/0014_12
Pandey, A., Soccol, C. R., & Mitchell, D. (2000). New developments in solid state fermentation: I-bioprocesses and products. Process Biochemistry, 35(10), 1153–1169. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0032-9592(00)00152-7
Peñuela, A. E., Tibaduiza, C. A., Morcillo, C. A., & Restrepo, M. V. (2021). Degradación enzimática de mucílago de Coffea arábica L., para la producción de café suave lavado. Biotecnología en el Sector Agropecuario y Agroindustrial, 19(2), 170–183. https://doi.org/10.18684/bsaa.v19.n2.2021.1848
Pérez-Fernández, Y., Ramírez-Valverde, B., & Cruz-León, A. (2023). ¿Cereceros o cooperativistas? Una decisión para la continuidad del cultivo de “café” (Coffea) en México. Revista Investigium IRE: Ciencias Sociales y Humanas, 14(2), 210-229. https://doi.org/10.15658/INVESTIGIUMIRE.231402.09
Polanía, A. M., López, J., Torres-Valenzuela, L., & Plaza-Dorado, J. L. (2024). From waste to taste: Coffee by-products as starter cultures for sustainable fermentation and improved coffee quality. Sustainability, 16(23), 10763. https://doi.org/10.3390/su162310763
Samoggia, A., & Riedel, B. (2018). Coffee consumption and purchasing behavior review: Insights for further research. Appetite, 129, 70–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.APPET.2018.07.002
Servicio de Información Agroalimentaria y Pesquera [SIAP]. (2024). Cierre de la producción agrícola. https://nube.agricultura.gob.mx/cierre_agricola/
Silva, F. B., Tormena, C. D., Pauli, E. D., de Almeida, A. G., Berg, A. B. C., Rakocevic, M., Bruns, R. E., Scarminio, I. S., & Marcheafave, G. G. (2021). Time dependent berry maturation for planting density levels in Coffea arabica L. beans: Mixture design-fingerprinting using near-infrared transmittance spectroscopy. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis, 97, 103795. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JFCA.2020.103795
Specialty Coffee Association [SCA]. (2026 Septiembre 18). Resources - Cupping protocols. https://podiumcoffeeclub.com/blogs/blog/sca-cupping-protocol
Vásquez, B. M., Rueda, C. A., & Bello, L. A. (2022). Determinación del pH y tiempo de fermentación teniendo en cuenta la temperatura ambiental durante el beneficio de café de variedad Castillo. Revista Matices Tecnológicos, 14. https://revistas.unisangil.edu.co/index.php/revistamaticestecnologicos/article/view/507
Wang, Y., Wang, X., Quan, C., Al-Romaima, A., Hu, G., Peng, X., & Qiu, M. (2024). Optimizing commercial Arabica coffee quality by integrating flavor precursors with anaerobic germination strategy. Food Chemistry: X, 23, 101684. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fochx.2024.101684
Worku, M., Astatkie, T., & Boeckx, P. (2023). Shade and postharvest processing effects on arabica coffee quality and biochemical composition in lowland and midland coffee-growing areas of southwestern Ethiopia. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis, 115(1), 105027. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JFCA.2022.105027
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Copyright (c) 2026 Revista Bio Ciencias